Chapter 21

AP World History

Chapter 21- Things to Know

People to Know:
Nicholas Copernicus- (1473-15430) A Polish astronomer and Aristotelian Scholar, who investigated the old geocentric theory that assumed that the sun, the planets, and the stars all circled the earth.
Tycho Brahe- (1546-1601) A Danish astronomer, aided by his sister, Sophia, had recorded hundreds of observations that pointed to difficulties in the Ptolemaic explanation. He also attempted to find a compromise between the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems by postulating that the planets moved about the sun while the latter orbited the earth, but didn’t have much success.
Johannes Kepler- (1571-1630) Brahe’s one time assistant and German mathematician. While working mathematically with Brahe’s records on the movement of Mars, Kepler was ultimately able to prove that the planet did not move in a circular orbit but in an ellipse. He also discovered that the paces of the planets accelerated when they approached the sun. From this he concluded that the sun might emit a magnetic force that directed the planets in their courses.
Galileo Galilei- (1564-1642) An Italian mathematician-physicist. In 1609 he made a telescope with which he discovered mountains on the moon, sunspots, the satellites of Jupiter, and the rings of Saturn.
Rene Decartes- (1596-1650) The French philosopher-mathematician, initiated a new critical mode of deduction. Decartes rejected every accepted idea that could be doubted.
Francis Bacon- (1561-1626) An Englishman and great contributor to the theory of scientific methodology. At a time when traditional modes of thought were crumbling, Bacon advocated the use of reason for interpreting human sensory experiences. His approach emphasized the use of systematically recorded facts derived from experiments to produce tentative hypotheses.
Isaac Newton- (1642-1727) A man who aided astronomers by perfecting differential calculus, the mathematics of infinity, variables, and probabilities.
Antoine Lavoisier- Proved that combustion is a chemical process involving the uniting of oxygen with the substances consumed.
John Smeaton- (1724-1792) The English perfector of the atmospheric steam engine, and was a member of a scientific society.
John Watt- (1736-1819) The Scottish mechanic who invented the classic and more efficient steam engine with a double-action piston capable of driving a wheel.
Baruch Spinoza- (1632-1677) A Jewish intellectual and the greatest Dutch philosopher, who accepted Newton’s astronomy but denied Newton’s contention that God controlled nature as a separate force. He taught that God existed in all of nature, which therefore ruled itself by its own laws.
Baron de Montesquieu- (1688-1755) A judicial official as well as a titled nobleman, and Francois-Marie Arouet, better known as Voltaire.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau- (1712-1778) Although believing in the general objectives of the Enlightenment, Rousseau distrusted reason and science. He gloried in human impulse and intuition, trusting emotions rather than thought, the heart rather than the mind.
Mary Astell- (1666-1731) Claimed legal equality for women on the basis of their innate rationality in her Serious Proposal to the Ladies.
Mary Wolistonecraft- (1759-1797) During the eighteenth century, in France a number of salonieres, including Madame de Pusseux and Madame Gacon-Dufour, wrote books defending their sex.
Cesare Beccaria- (1738-1794) A humanist philosopher who pleaded for humanitarian legal reforms in Italy.
Adam Smith- The most influential advocate of the new economic theory was a leader in the Scottish Enlightenment and a professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow University, who visited France and exchanged ideas with the physiocrats.
Immanuel Kant- (1724-18904) A professor at the University of Königsberg, who was thoroughly antagonized by the skeptical and materialistic extremes of the Enlightenment. While appreciating science and dedicated to reason, he worked to shift philosophy back to a more sensible position without giving up much of its newly discovered rational basis.
Philipp Spencer- (1635-1705) He lead Lutheran Pietism with Emanuel Swedenborg, which followed a pattern similar to that of Methodism. In Germany he stressed Bible study, hymn singing, and powerful preaching.
John Howard- An English reformer who was one of the first advocates of using prisons to rehabilitate their inmates, not to brutalize them.
Frederick II of Prussia- Known as “the Great”, who became a model ruler during the second half of his reign. An avowed admirer of Voltaire, Frederick in his writings popularized the ideal monarch as the “first servant of the state,” the “father of his people,” and the “last refuge of the unfortunate.”
Catherine the Great- Frederick’s contemporary and also known as an enlightened despot and as “the Great.” Having learned the politics of survival at the Russian court, she had conspired with palace guards to kill her erratic husband, Peter, and have herself declared tsarina in 1762. She was ruthless Machiavellian in foreign affairs, with far more lovers than many male monarchs. She was also a sensitive woman who appreciated the arts, literature, and the advantages of being considered enlightened.
Joseph II- (1780-1790) The son of Maria Theresa and her successor as Habsburg ruler of Austria. He was intelligent and well educated. During his whole reign he fancied himself a royal voice of reason, fighting for human progress against ignorance, superstition, and vice.

Terms to Know:
Enlightenment- The notion of human happiness as a natural right, the separation of powers, and the role of the social critic to shine the light of his genius to expose fraud and corruption to a larger world.
Heliocentric Theory- The theory that the planets rotated around the Sun in a counter-clockwise motion, by Nicolaus Copernicus.
Inductive Method- Also known as the scientific method, which is the use of observations and making a hypothesis about a specific subject.
Deductive Method- When you are given a clue or general concept and search further to make a specific conclusion.
“Enlightened Despotism”- Also called benevolent despotism, a form of government in the 18th century in which absolute monarchs pursued legal, social, and educational reforms inspired by the Enlightenment. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/931000/enlightened-despotism
Rationalism- Any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification.

Questions:
2.) What was the Scientific Revolution? What were some of the major discoveries? The scientific revolution was a new way of thinking in the modern way of science and thus came to the scientific method. It combines two methology approaches depending on reason with different applications. John Locke used logic and mathematical relationships and used natural laws of psychology, economics, and politics. Some major discoveries were the heliocentric theory, telescope, and microscope.
3.) What was the Enlightenment? How did it extend the scientific revolution? The enlightenment is an educational path towards future improvement. John Locke extended the theories because he charted the transition from the scientific revolution to the enlightenment.